Once biomass consumption was estimated, buffalo contributed the most to lion dietary intake (58% for males and 39% for females), followed by elephant (23% for males and 20% for females) and giraffe (7% for males and 18% for females), collectively accounting for 88% and 77% of the prey biomass consumed for males and females respectively (Table 3). An average of 300 people depend on the water source, says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. We systematically searched for potential lion kill sites by identifying clusters of x:y location coordinates including 4 hours of sequential locations within a defined proximity (150 m), and these were then investigated on foot (see also [4], [24]). Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. No seasonal difference in male lion diet was detected, due to the prime importance of buffalo throughout the year. Recent advances in GPS technology has allowed non invasive carcass observations and faecal analysis to gain increasing knowledge on large mammalian carnivores diet [3], [4], and has also permitted to study the spatial distribution of kills providing important information for predator-prey relationships [5]. 3B and C). Seasonal differences in the distribution of prey consumed were tested using chi-square tests. Cameroon has one of the strongest economies in sub-Saharan Africa. This is consistent with previous findings suggesting that female lion home range size was constrained by the abundance of kudu in the early dry season [40]. They can survive days or even weeks without drinking water. (B) and (C) Jacobs index of seasonal preference to kill within 2 km of a waterhole for the different prey species for male and female lions respectively. Faecal analysis revealed a higher number of species occurring in the lion diet (20 species), owing to the detection of more small prey items, unexpectedly including climbing mice (Dendromus spp.) Sossusvlei The prey items detected were categorised similarly to the prey detected from the kills. Trees, grasses and bushes were heavy with raindrops and the bushveld was resonant with the noise of water dripping, flowing and surging. The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. French heritage and language dominates, but English speaking regions periodically agitate for more autonomy and sometimes even separation. The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. Lions get their water like most other savanna mammals, relying on watering holes and temporary pools to hydrate. A complex of granites, micaschists and migmatites. Africa Groundwater Atlas: Hydrogeology of Cameroon. David W. Macdonald, Contributed equally to this work with: Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. Molua EL and Lambi CM. The two aquifers are separated by mudstones of the Nkappa formation. We expected lion kill locations to be influenced by the trend in prey aggregation at artificial waterholes, resulting in seasonal variation in kill distribution; closer to waterholes in dry periods and further away in wet periods. Contrastingly during wet seasons, pools of water are more available throughout the landscape and herbivore distributions more homogeneous and dispersed. Cameroon's national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. Further, it revealed the opportunistic hunting behaviour of lions for prey as diverse as elephants and mice, with elephants taken mostly as juveniles at the end of the dry season during droughts. Water and Sanitation Program. Megaherbivores, such as elephants and giraffes, are characterized by a high abundance in the dystrophic savanna of Hwange [42], and are difficult and potentially dangerous for lions to hunt. Groundwater quality is generally good. A pint-sized antelope, often no taller than a big coffee-table book, with a squeaky cry and a zig-zagging escape tactic. The river is an important fishing ground for local communities. and common mice (Mus spp.). Certain details were gradually implemented to ensure that the environment of the areas where they were detained were close to if not identical to the habitat where they originally lived in. Nigeria, Chad, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo. Recharge occurs to the confined aquifer only in limited areas (GWP 2013). In the 19th century, soldiers of the Fulani Empire founded the Adamawa Amirate in the north of present-day Cameroon, while various other chiefdoms held power across other parts of the country. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. It is used to supplement the domestic and industrial water demand of Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006). WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities, explains Njounan. Responsibility for the construction and management of rural wells and boreholes has been transferred to communes (AMCOW 2011). 1). There are a series of parallel faults running northeast/southwest, with displacements that can reach 1000 m, and associated with large volcanic massifs of various ages and compositions. The Lake Chad Basin Aquifer System: a case study for the research project 'Transboundary groundwater management in Africa'. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). They are the most recent available information in the Aquastat database. Jacobs indices revealed that lions of both sexes kill their prey preferentially within 2 km from a waterhole for all prey species except small antelopes (Fig. cameroon water resources for lions. Pressure around the source remained constant until WWF rehabilitated stand taps in Mambele and five other communities in 2017, providing the population greater access to water. Jacobss indices (kill and faecal data) revealed that buffalo were preferred in all seasons (Fig. 1). Your email address will not be published. Funding: The work was supported by the Darwin Initiative for Biodiversity, Disney Wildlife Conservation Foundation, SAVE Foundation, Regina B. Frankenberg Foundation the Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation and Instalite Contracting Bulawayo. Seasonal variation in relative contribution to lion kills by different prey species are shown in Fig. Namib Desert Jacobs index also revealed that buffalo was the most intensively selected species throughout the year. While many streams meander through the forested areas of East Cameroon, only few springs like that of Mambele are drinkable. It is covered by 6 of the 8 main climatic units encountered in Cameroon (Kpoumi 2015) which are: (1) altitudinal tropical climate of the Adamawa; (2) mountainous tropical climate of the West;. However, much of the shallow groundwater is vulnerable to contamination. 7 Stunning African Honeymoon Destinations. Some of the most mineralised groundwater is in volcanic aquifers, but the most mineralised are springs in the Mamf basin that are related to evaporites. Availability and access to surface water resources should be considered a priority in the design and management of protected areas in dryland regions to minimize the impact of large wildlife populations on surface water quality and ensure available surface water resources are able to sustainable support both human and animal needs, they concluded. Performed the experiments: ZD JEH FVK. Artesian pressure is being reduced, possibly due to over pumping. The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. Alker M. 2008. Working to sustain the natural world for the benefit of people and nature. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. Some - eg Mamf - contain evaporites. The importance of buffalo was more pronounced for male lions, which corroborates findings from other studies [39]. Discover the magic of Devils Pool at Victoria Falls all your questions answered! Largely acidic groundwater, with pH from 4 to 7. For males, buffalo was followed by the class medium Bovidae (11%) - class dominated by sable and wildebeest for kill data -, elephant (9%) and zebra (8%), together accounting for 84% of the prey detected (Table 1). Felix Murindagomo, Southern Africa "An average of 300 people depend on the water source," says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. Tsavo Parks and Chyulu Hills Complex - Unesco. feeding locations) of African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes, where there is a strong seasonal variation in both surface-water availability and forage quality [22]. Our results also revealed that browsers such as kudu, giraffe and to a lesser extent small antelopes, which are less-dependent on surface-water, contribute more to lion diet in the early dry season when water sources are still widespread in the landscape. Y Xu and B Usher, Taylor and Francis/Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 47-55. Consequently, waterhole areas are attractive for all herbivores in the dry season and attractive for grazers in the wet season, which corresponds to the period when most grazers have their young. Schedule a phone or Zoom call with one of our safari planners, Complete our travel enquiry form to connect with a safari planner. More information on average rainfall and temperature for each of the climate zones in Cameroon can be seen at the Cameroon climate page. The Black Umfolozi River is a good area to keep an eye out for cats, there is lots to eat around the water. Map developed from World Wildlife Fund HydroSHEDS; Digital Chart of the World drainage; and FAO Inland Water Bodies. Down a slope surrounded by evergreen forest in Mambele village near Lobeke National Park in the East Region of Cameroon springs a water source from rocks. We used to walk more than 1km to fetch water, climbing up and down a steep hill. In the northern region, increasing population combined with a reduction in the quantity and regularity of rainfall has resulted in persistent drought and reduced groundwater resources (Ako Ako et al. The significant role played by bitcoin for businesses! It has spectacular spear-like horns that even lion treat with respect. What are the major rivers in Cameroon? The river is fed by two major tributaries (Pende River and Ouham-Pende) and drains into Chari River. Frequency of use (in both kills and faeces) and selection index of kudu in the early dry season highlight the importance of this species to lion female diet. Cameroon: Sahara Desert A Threat to Livelihood and Bio-Diversity. Water weed which has invaded and is choking Harare's main water sources like Lake Chivero. This page was last modified on 10 November 2022, at 14:15. Equatorial conditions in the south create no flood peaks per season (i.e., Lobe and Nyong). We thank Matt Hayward, Craig Tambling and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on a previous draft. The Lake Chad basin aquifer contains three main aquifer units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). A particularly beautiful and bountiful antelope with distinctive colouring, horns that outline a heart shape and immaculate white tummies, despite the dust. The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. Buffalo (the highest contribution in all seasons for both sexes) showed a constant contribution to male diet throughout the seasons, and a lower contribution to female diet in the early dry season. Additionally, dry season scarcity of good quality forage, exacerbated by local depletion around water sources, tends to make certain herbivores more vulnerable to predation, particularly during low rainfall periods [16][19]. 2). Here we investigate potential seasonality in the diet, prey preference and distribution of kills (i.e. In African semi-arid savannas, surface-water is a heterogeneously distributed, limiting resource which becomes scarcer as the dry season progresses. That was the only source of water for the entire Mambele community before WWF rehabilitated this stand tap. It was not until the recent century where the conditions of lions in captivity have improved. What are the water sources of Cameroon? Sightings of Lion in the Hluhluwe Umfolozi vary according to various factors. Seasonal geographic information on waterholes was available and allowed us to calculate for each kill the distance to the nearest waterhole containing water (distance-to-water) using ArcView 3.2 nearest neighbour extensions (ESRI 2004). They rely on some of the Kalahari's plants that have also adapted to the dry conditions and either store water or have mechanisms to prevent excess water loss. The main water source for the Tsavo West national park is Lake Jipe, which sradles the border with Tanzania, according to Kipongoso, its level had dropped 10 meters (33 feet) in a decade. There is no perennial water in Hwange, and rain fed pans hold water throughout the year only in high rainfall years. 1). 1 being water and season. Vassolo S. 2012. Miniature waterfalls sprung up overnight cascading down rocky outcrops and bursting over gullies, only to disappear again at the first sign of sunshine. Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution. Lake Chad Twelve-year-old Akoela Francis Kame and his younger brother walk one-kilometer each day to fetch water here. 2017. Constructing a 3D geological model from geophysical data for groundwater modelling and management in the Kribi-Campo sedimentary sub-basin, Cameroon. Then-Gov. Semi-arid ecosystems are characterized by seasonal variations in surface-water and vegetation resources, with several implications for herbivores, and ultimately their predators. The main aquifer in this basin is formed of unconsolidated Pliocene (Tertiary)-Quaternary sands, which form an upper and a lower aquifer, separated by a clay layer. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS Three other major rivers are the Djrem, Bnuo, and Nyong. Aggregation of vulnerable herbivores around water sources in the dry season is likely to attract predators. African elephants that have become accustomed to the relentless cycles of drought in Etosha and map its water sources in their memories. Thus the importance of buffalo as prey is despite dry season variations when nutrition and water deprivation weaken susceptible individuals (young and old). Manufacturing industry accounted for some 30% of GDP in 2009. This allows conversations they can hear for 100km further than normal. These statistics are sourced from FAO Aquastat. The hydrogeology map shows a simplified version of the type and productivity of the main aquifers at a national scale (see the Hydrogeology Map resource page for more details). GWP (Global Water Partnership). During the study period, adult male and female lions were sighted together in only 7% of the sightings (n=1710). Kill sites were classified based on the forensic evidence of a kill. Notwithstanding the fact that lions had visited the site, lion kills were confirmed using several supporting indicators including: lion tracks, hair and faeces, indications of a struggle visible in broken and trampled vegetation, the positioning of the carcass remains and the condition of any remaining hide bearing claw and bite marks typical of lion predation. Sossusvlei Lake Jipe provides water for the wildlife species in the park like the lions, elephants and among others when they are thirsty. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, I travelled throughout Cameroon in February and March 2020 with colleagues from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Elephant Crisis Fund to gain a better understanding of the conservation landscape in . Occasionally, falling water tables in the dry season cause a reversal of the hydraulic gradient and seawater intrusion. All necessary permits were obtained for the described field study from the appropriate agency (Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, 23(1) (c) (ii) 01/20052007). Small antelopes contributed 1% to lion diet by relative biomass consumed. If reproducing diagrams that include third party information, please cite both the Africa Groundwater Atlas and the third party sources. Copper isn't Zambia's only rich natural resource. The uppermost sandy layer is hydraulically connected with brackish waters in the Wouri estuary, and saline waters of the coastal wetlands. Further north, flows are continuous all year round, with only one peak flood (i.e., Sanaga and Wouri). Imagine that thomas was asked to collect the water needed to supply only the cooking and The congo river is the world's second largest after amazon river in . These are dominantly basalts, with occasional intermediate to acidic phonolites, trachytes and rhyolites, and some loose pyroclastic and tuffaceous ash on the flanks of the volcanic centres. (I accept). Our results showed that lions are opportunist hunters with prey ranging from mice to elephant. In northeast Cameroon, the Lake Chad basin aquifer is shared with neighbouring countries. Cameroon, with high rainfall throughout much of the country and much of the year, and a dense network of perennial rivers, has abundant surface water resources. This is consistent with findings from Kruger National Park where GPS data from male and female lions suggest that males were only present with females at 10% of their kills [4]. Water Practice and Technology. Tsavo Lion Project - Lion Conservation Fund. 3B). In terms of quantity, it is the second potential in Africa after the Democratic Republic of Congo. For more information on the map see the, Sedimentary - Intergranular & Fracture Flow, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, https://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Hydrogeology_of_Cameroon, irrigation water use and requirement statistics, Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon, Download a GIS shapefile of the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map, Water Resources Management and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Cameroon, Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution, Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon, Water supply, sanitation and health risks in Douala 5 municipality, Cameroon, Groundwater Need Assessment - Lake Chad Basin, Effect of diffuse recharge and wastewater on groundwater contamination in Douala, Cameroon, Constructing a 3D geological model from geophysical data for groundwater modelling and management in the Kribi-Campo sedimentary sub-basin, Cameroon, http://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php?title=Hydrogeology_of_Cameroon&oldid=57918. Large carnivores inhabiting ecosystems with heterogeneously distributed environmental resources with strong seasonal variations frequently employ opportunistic foraging strategies, often typified by seasonal switches in diet. Mambele, situated some 800 km from the nations capital Yaounde, is one of 21 communities around Lobeke with over 23000 inhabitants. In terms of quantity, it is the second potential in. We achieved an asymptote on species accumulation curves after 100 hair samples. Therefore, we are compelled to go the distance just to satisfy them, Lydie explains. Cameroons national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. 2017) and organic pollution (Sanou et al. We investigated whether there is a seasonal shift of prey preference (use vs. availability) suggestive of different foraging strategies in different seasons. Cameroon also has a number of smaller lakes throughout the country. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. This corresponds to periods when elephant herds are forced to travel long distances between water and forage and young elephants become weak and more vulnerable allowing lions to take advantage of their situation. changing relative selection of prey species between seasons, is not characteristic of the Hwange lion population at least for the primary prey. Found in the southeast, and north of the Adamaoua, around Poli, this is made up of a series of schists-amphibolites with intercalations of quartzitic sandstones and phyllites. Bold dashed lines indicate means. 3A). WWF findings show that cholera and typhoid are amongst the top health challenges within communities near rivers due to inaccessibility to drinkable water. Corrections, Expressions of Concern, and Retractions. Seasonal variation in the relative contribution by different prey species to lion kills, for males (M) and females (F), distinguishing age class proportions. Kenya's Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) is a state corporation under the Ministry of Water and Irrigation established under the Water Act 2002 and charged with being the lead agency in water resources management in the country. United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development and Economic Commission for Africa, Natural Resources/Water Series No. 2020 WWF - World Wide Fund For Nature 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund) WWF is a WWF Registered Trademark Creative Commons license. We owe thanks to Wilderness Safaris, The Hide Safaris, Touch the Wild Safaris, Zimbabwe Sun international and the Gwaai ICA for permission to work on their concessions. Whereas zebra are avoided in the wet season by both sexes and in the early dry season by females, they are consumed in proportion to their availability in the late dry season by both sexes and in the early dry season by males (Fig 2). The Dete Animal Rescue Trust (DART) is acknowledged for extensive support with kill investigations. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055182, Editor: Matt Hayward, Groundwater from volcanic aquifers is widely used by the bottled water industry. 2013. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? The study was conducted between 2005 and 2007 in the northern sector of Hwange National Park (Hwange), north-western Zimbabwe, latitudes 1830 and 1950 S and longitudes 2545 and 2730 E. The study area covers c. 7554 km2 of dystrophic woodland savanna. 2009). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Nonetheless, kill investigations revealed that elephant is an important prey species, contributing 23% and 20% of biomass to male and female lion diet respectively. Three seasons are distinguished: the wet season (November-February), with long-term mean rainfall of 513.6160.0 mm, wide spread surface-water availability and abundant, high quality browse and grazing; the early dry season (March-June), long-term mean rainfall of 111.172.8 mm with decreasing fodder quality and surface-water availability; and the late dry season (JulyOctober), long-term mean rainfall of 25.026.6 mm with surface-water restricted to artificial waterholes and very few natural pans, while deciduous trees lose their foliage and both browse and grazing is of the lowest quality during the year. Jacobs index finally revealed a very strong preference for kills within 2 km from a waterhole for all prey species, except small antelopes, in all seasons. Water Resources Management and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Cameroon. 62% of elephants were taken in 2005, which was a drought year (rainfall: 330 mm), concurring with increasing relative contribution of elephant to lion kills in the late dry season and peak contribution in the wet season (due to many kills in November before the first rains). Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon. 18, ST/TCD/5. Many studies have suggested two principal causes: (1) human activities such as poor farming practices,. Lion prey species found at kills classified in 8 groups and their respective proportions relative to frequency of occurrence. Call us to speak to an experienced safari planner. The Lake Chad basin contains three main geological units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). In our study, lions preyed mainly on elephant juveniles at the end of the dry season of a very dry year (October-November 2005), supporting previous findings that young elephants make up an unusually large proportion of lion prey in Hwange in the dry season during years of low rainfall [19]. Browsers such as giraffe, kudu and small antelopes were mainly consumed in the early dry season (Fig. Wrote the paper: ZD MV AJL DWM. Transboundary Groundwater Fact Sheet, compiled by F Bontemps. Average distance-to-water revealed that lions typically kill between 1 and 4 km from a waterhole, with elephant and giraffe being the species killed most often the closest to a waterhole, and kudu and small antelopes killed the furthest away (Fig. In more rural areas, people walk great distances just to reach rivers. The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. Buffalo consistently emerged as the most frequently utilised prey in all seasons by both male (56%) and female (33%) lions, contributing the most to lion dietary biomass. These are smaller sedimentary basins. Fish River Canyon Furthermore, juvenile elephants were selected by female lions in the wet season. These basins generally form low to moderately productive aquifers, capable of borehole yields of up to 5 m/hour. For each hair the cross-section and a scale pattern was photographed and identified to species level using photographic reference libraries [30][33] as well as unpublished photographic reference libraries compiled from carcass, capture and museum specimen animals in situ in Zimbabwe. Sights in Tsavo - Lonely Planet. Groundwater in the deeper confined Pliocene-Quaternary aquifer is dominated by Na-HCO. Windhoek Surface water. Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; In botswana lions take to the water regularly, lions do hunt elephant and hippo and in some areas of the country lions can go for moths without drinking water. AMCOW. Water resources in northern Cameroon have continuously been reducing over the past years. Most often asked questions related to bitcoin. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Tubney House, Abingdon, United Kingdom, Current address: Marwell Wildlife, Colden Common, Winchester, United Kingdom, Affiliations: The deeper aquifer is confined by the intervening clays, which is widely used for industry and domestic supplies in Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Citation: Davidson Z, Valeix M, Van Kesteren F, Loveridge AJ, Hunt JE, Murindagomo F, et al. We then converted the frequency of occurrence into biomass estimates using the average adult male and female mass (from [1], [34]). Where multi-species classes were defined, biomass was calculated as the average mass of the species included. Vernal pools are a type of wetlands - sometimes resembling larger puddles. Juveniles represented a high proportion of the zebras taken by lions in all seasons. 2006. Groundwater in the deeper Cretaceous sandstone aquifer is dominated by K/Na-HCO3 types, and typically of good quality. Hence male and female data were analysed separately. The basin is shared by Chad, Niger, the Central African Republic, Nigeria, Cameroon, Algeria, Sudan and Libya. The plateau areas show distinct wet and dry seasons, with lower rainfall than the coastal region. View our recommended safaris for inspiration and get ready to plan your dream safari, Contact us or fill out an enquiry form and one of our travel experts will help you tailor make your perfect safari, Enjoy an authentic African experience, with peace of mind, Namibia Overall, relative seasonal contribution revealed that grazers, such as Suidae and zebra, contribute more to lion diet in the late dry season when these species are heavily dependent on frequent access to surface-water. Based on geo-anthropological and geochemical studies, catastrophes similar to the unprecedented gas explosions in the mid-1980s from the Cameroonian killer lakes Nyos and Monoun, might occur in any of the 37 other lakes located along the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL). Igiene e sanita pubblica, 71(1), 21-37. Our safari planners aren't available now. It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally 'bounce' these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere.
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