), Encyclopaedia Iranica I/9 . They paid taxes and raised troops in return for protection against the "howling people" surrounding the Roman Empire, but the emperors were not always able to meet their expectations. St Jerome, in particular, accused them of cannibalism. He was not, however, a narrow-minded pagan and subscribed to the view that there really was no need for a sharp dichotomy between pagan and Christian beliefs. He believed in a divine power that manifested itself through the various deities.[30] He was full of praise for Valentinian Is policy of religious tolerance and while generally very positive on Julian, he thought he went too far in his anti-Christian measures, it was a harsh law that forbade Christian rhetoricians and grammarians to teach unless they consented to worship the pagan Gods.[31] Grant suggests that on the one hand what he wrote in praise of Julian would have displeased Christians, while when he criticized Julian he would have alienated pagans, who idolized him. [122] Emperors routinely commemorated their victories over the barbarian tribes on inscriptions and coins. Share to Facebook. After his death, the city's pagan prefect Quintus Aurelius Symmachus could not persuade ValentinianII to allow the restoration of the Altar of Victory in the Senate House. The early-7th-century Theophylact Simocatta is the least reliable Later Roman historian: both his chronology and topography are chaotic. A Roman historian chronicles Rome on the brink of collapseAmmianus Marcellinus was the last great Roman historian, and his writings rank alongside those of Livy and Tacitus. English: LoC Class: DG: History: General and Eastern Hemisphere: Italy, Vatican City, Malta: Subject: Rome -- History . Unilateral divorce was limited to cases of serious crimes, like poisoning, committed by husband or wife. [146] TheodosiusI's opponent Eugenius promised to restore sacrifices to secure the support of the remnants of pagan aristocracy. [12] The pagan Zosimus, the sole prominent Later Roman historian whose full work survived, blames Christianity for the quick decline of the Roman Empire. Ammianus MarcellinusContributions in history of late Roman Empire. [64] On his deathbed, he had allegedly named Julian as his sole heir. Their conflict enabled an ambitious Gothic leader Alaric I to take control of the western Balkans. He summarizes his true views of Justinian and Justinian's inner circle in the Secret History, describing him as a wicked and unscrupulous figure surrounded by intrigues and scandals. [9] His brief epilogues on the characters of the emperors, an example of a certain moralizing tendency, have been called the best short characterizations in the whole of ancient history.[10] He gives excellent pictures of social and economic problems, and in his attitude to the non-Roman peoples of the empire he is far more broad-minded than writers like Livy and Tacitus. [58][59] For Constantius believed that Dalmatius and Hannibalianus wanted to get rid of him and his brothers, he had them and their suspected supporters executed. Julian had concealed his pagan Neoplatonic sympathies, but after his ascension he openly renounced Christianity. The local deities were associated with the gods of the Roman pantheon, but elements of the local cults survived. [67], Unable to resist to attacks by the nomadic Huns from the east, masses of Gothsreportedly 100,000 men, women and childrengathered at the Lower Danube and sought asylum from Valens in the summer of 376. Ammianus Marcellinus was a fourth-century Roman historian and his work the "Res Gestae", known in English as "The Later Roman Empire", is one of the most important historical accounts to have survived from ancient Rome. After three synods condemned Donatist views, Constantine ordered the confiscation of their churches, but he stopped their persecution after his troops slaughtered a Donatist congregation in 321. Emperors Julian and Valens were killed in action, demonstrating that the personal command of the army could put the emperor's life at risk. His is the last major historical account of the late Roman Empire which survives today. Likewise only fragments are known from the works of Ammianus' continuator, Sulpicius Alexander. The Later Roman Empire chronicles a period of twenty-five years during Marcellinus' own lifetime, covering the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens, and providing eyewitness accounts of significant . Late sources attribute the ban on sacrifices to him, but only sacrifices associated with magical practices were forbidden during his reign. Comments: In the context of troubles in the East of the Roman empire in the mid-fourth century reigns of Constantius and Gallus, Ammianus Marcellinus characterizes the Isaurians, a people living in Pisidia and neighbourying Pamphylia. [102][103] To counterbalance Aetius' power, Galla Placidia recalled Bonifatius from Africa and made him the supreme commander of the Western Roman army. domesticus in the Roman army from about 350 c.e. Both legal compilations are important sources of state administration, although their actual application is unproven. He traveled widely in the East of the empire. Most Christian intellectuals embraced a modified version of Rome's imperialist ideology, claiming that God destined the empire to facilitate the spread of Christianity for the salvation of all mankind. [190], Around 368, a provincial governor and three imperial envoys were executed on charges of, An offspring of a traditional senatorial family could typically serve as. [63] He appointed his cousin Gallus to rule the eastern provinces as Caesar, but Gallus' despotic measures caused massive discontent. In comparison, the central administration employed less than a thousand full-time bureaucrats during the reign of the first emperors. [139] His short reign could not stop the Christianization of the Roman Empire. The best contemporary source of information about Britain in the late fourth century is the late-imperial historian Ammianus Marcellinus. Although collective ovations for dignitaries were still regularly commemorated in public places, in this period they were made mainly in honor of imperial officials instead of local leaders as it had been common in the previous centuries. He was a pagan and an admirer of the apostate Julian, to whose career about half the surviving books are devoted. From these references, it has been deduced that he was born probably between 325 and 330 to an educated family of Greek descent, possibly in Antioch[3] This probability hinges on whether he was the recipient of a surviving letter to a Marcellinus from a contemporary, Libanius. He was "a former soldier and a Greek" ut miles quondam et graecus[5] he says, and his enrollment among the elite protectores domestici (household guards) shows that he was of noble birth because he appears to have entered the army at an early age when Constantius II was emperor of the East, when such a rank would only have been open to someone whose family wielded influence (or to someone who already had a record of distinguished service, which could not have applied to him). After Theodosius married Valentinian's sister Galla, Maximus invaded Pannonia, but Theodosius defeated and captured him at Aquileia. At that time, the Gaels of Dalriada controlled what is now Argyll as part of a kingdom that stretched across the sea between Britain and Ireland. . Episcopal elections became controlled by the aristocracy and the local communities could no more freely elect their bishops. Although the rules changed time to time, slaves, men less than 1.65 metres (5.4 feet), heretics and urban magistrates were excluded from military service. Valens granted their request because he wanted to muster fresh troops from among the Goths for a new war against Persia. National Library of Russia, Codex Syriac 1, German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine, Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties, Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty, Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Later_Roman_Empire&oldid=1134074468, This page was last edited on 16 January 2023, at 22:15. [116], Constantine removed the praetorian prefects' most military functions, although they remained responsible for recruitment and supply of armies. [121], Roman citizens regarded the defense of their homeland as the emperors' prime duty. Drijvers, Jan Willem, and David Hunt. He allowed the Burgundians to establish their kingdom in Roman territory on the Middle Rhine. Maximus withdrew to Hispania and Constantius captured Constantine at Arles. They jointly announced their retirement in May 305. Two years later Western Armenia was incorporated into the Roman Empire, but Theodosius appointed local Armenian aristocrats to rule the new provinces as hereditary governors. Ammianus Marcellinus Soldier-Historian of the Late Roman Empire (Semple Lectures, University of Cincinnati, 1964), 22-26 offers a recent summary of the evidence. [38][39], The Illyrian Diocletian was a genuine representative of the soldier emperor's reformist zeal. A year later, Galerius and the retired Diocletian died, leaving Constantine, Licinius, Maxentius and Maximinus on the scene. Most soldiers were conscripts and sons of veterans were expected to serve in the army. The Code of Justinian expands the Code of Theodosius with rulings issued by emperors between 437 and 529. Books 21, 22, 23, and 24 all cover Julians reign, including his campaign against the Persians. The Later Roman EmpirePrefaceIntroductionFurther ReadingFamily Tree of Constantine the GreatIntroductory Note, The Later Roman EmpireBook 14Book 15Book 16Book 17Book 18Book 19Book 20Book 21Book 22Book 23Book 24Book 25Book 26Book 27Book 28Book 29Book 30Book 31, Notes on the TextNote on Officials and their TitlesNotes on PersonsDates of EmperorsGeographical keyMapsGeneral MapMonuments of RomeMap A: Gaul, Germany, and the RhineMap B: The Danube, Italy and ThraceMap C: The East and PersiaMap D: Asia Minor, Sign up for news about books, authors, and more from Penguin Random House, Visit other sites in the Penguin Random House Network. [23] As only top bureaucrats could afford time-consuming and costly travels, low-level provincial officials rarely made contacts with their peers in other provinces. Gratian refused to confirm the child's promotion, but he soon faced insurrections in the west. [87] The usurper ConstantineIII could not prevent the Vandals, Alans and Suebi from crossing the Pyrenees into Hispania. [117] After abolishing the senators' obligation to reside in Rome and attend the meetings of the Senate, Constantine could grant senatorial rank generously. He led the Vandals and Alans across the Strait of Gibraltar into northern Africa. He does refer to Sallust and allusion to Tacitus, Livy, and Herodotus can be identified in his text. The later Roman Empire (A.D. 354-378). Certainly, the Res Gestae, has suffered from the manuscript transmission. Only pagan practices that the Christians regarded especially immoral or offensive were banned under his rule. The Code of Theodosius cites a number of cases when the system was misused through the falsification of imperial responses. Inflation increased the significance of taxes in kind, particularly the annona militaristhe compulsory grain supply to the armyand the angareiathe mandatory military transport.
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